The selection of ingredients is basic for the production of sausages of uniformstandard quality. Although beef, veal and pork are the main meat sausage materials,mutton, poultry and other kinds of meat, together with edible by-products, are also ofimportance. Apart from meat raw materials, a number of nonmeat ingredients, such ascuring salts, sugar, spices and casings, are increasingly used in sausage production.The regulations in many countries have an important bearing on the use of differentingredients in sausage formulations; however, in a number of developing countries noregulations exist or they are not applied. In developed countries particularly, there isgovernmental pressure to reduce the amounts of salt, nitrite, nitrate and otheradditives or ingredients in different kinds and types of sausages.
MUSCLE MEATS
Skeletal muscle meats from slaughtered animals are the principal ingredients used insausage production. However, the different skeletal muscles vary not only in theircontents of fat, water and proteins, but also in their water binding and emulsifyingproperties, colour, etc. This is the reason why all skeletal muscle meats, such asdifferent cuts of carcasses, including cheek and head meats and trimmings, as well asother muscle meats, such as hearts, weasand meat (muscular part of oesophagus) andgiblet meat (fleshy portion of diaphragm), are regularly subdivided according to theirfat-to-lean ratios and their water binding properties.
The control of moisture, fat and protein is difficult due to the fact that is not possible toobtain a high degree of uniformity in the lean and fatty meat ingredients in varioussausage formulations. For instance, considerable variations from one lot of beef orpork trim to another are possible. There is considerable variation between the animalsthemselves; the trimming operation also introduces variations. The sausage producershould control these variations in the sausage mix in order to obtain a more uniformfinished product which, obviously, will have more appeal from the customer'sviewpoint.
Meat trimmings in particular vary in kind and quality. Thus, in order to achieve anaccurately formulated product, the trimmings should be classified according to fat,moisture and protein content, as well as the species of animal from which theyoriginate. Under this classification, fat pork trimmings consist of more than 40 percentof fat.
In a similar manner lean beef (comparatively free from fat, as chuck and necktrimmings) is distinguished from larger portions of fat, such as flank or rib trimmings.Lean beef trimmings and generally lean beef cuts are preferred for use in fermentedsausage products where a large percentage of beef is essential. Meat trimmings arerelatively perishable and great care must be exercised to keep trimmings in a freshcondition.
Meats of high and low water binding properties.
Meat showing high water bindingproperties are recommended for emulsion-type sausage manifacture; they are bull,cow and calf meats, beef trimmings, beef chucks, lean pork trimmings and skinnedpoultry meat. Many high-value beef cuts, not suitable for direct sale because ofbruising or other defects, may be utilized in sausages after the damaged parts havebeen trimmed away. Such meats are normally characterized by a good water bindingcapacity while veal also gives a light coloured sausage. Mutton has superior bindingproperties, but due to its strong flavour, its usage is ordinarily limited to about 15–20percent of the total meat. Despite this fact all mutton sausages have a high reputation ina number of countries.
Buffalo meat is seldom used for sausage production. Usually buffaloes areslaughtered at an advanced age when they have reached the end of their usefulworking life as draught or milk-producing animals. The age factor probably accountsfor the general opinion that buffalo meat is unacceptably tough. Buffalo meat gives adark coloured sausage but has excellent binding qualities.
Beef flank and beef and pork cheek head and shank meats possess intermediatebinding properties. Beef and pork cheek and head meats are removed from the headof the animal at the same time and thoroughly washed to remove adhering blood. Theyare quickly chilled or immediately used in various sausage formulations. Shouldersand other pork cuts are also deboned and the meat used in sausages.
Fat pork trimmings, hearts, beef briskets, porkjowls, weasand meats and giblets aremeats of inferior binding capacity. When such materials are used in a sausage formula,the sausage manufacturer must proceed more carefully as these tissues contain arelatively large amount of free water with a highly varied water-to-protein ratio.
Fig.16 DECREASE IN WATER BINDING CAPACITY (WBC) IN POSTMORTEM MEAT
Superior sausage-making properties of hot boned beef.
Meat, removed from the carcasses of bulls immediately after slaughter (within 1 to 2 hours), has long beenappreciated in traditional European sausage production. Experience has shown thatusing such prerigor boned bull beef in meat emulsion can be a tremendous advantageresulting in a product of superior water binding and emulsifying properties withimproved flavour, texture and stability of the finished product (Fig. 16). The reason forbetter binding and emulsifying characteristics of prerigor meat lies in the extraction ofsalt-soluble proteins (actin and myosin) before they combine to form nonextractableactomyosin causing the onset of rigor mortis. The addition of 2 percent of salt toprerigor beef results in the absence of rigor mortis, an increase of extractable proteinsand enhanced water binding and emulsifying properties compared withconventionally chilled meat which has gone into rigor without the addition of salt. Themaintenance of superior functional properties of prerigor meat requires either itssalting or rapid freezing and its use without thawing or freeze-drying after salting.
Refigeration and technological development has moved the meat industry away fromprerigor meat processing and separated the slaughterer from the sausagemanufacturer. Thus, the meat industry is presently accustomed to handling chilledpostrigor meats.
Although there are reasons for using prerigor meats in many meat products, its mainfield of utilization is doubtlessly in emulsion-type sausage manufacture where thegreater water binding and emulsifying capacity can be better utilized. Prerigor meatprocessing would be particularly advantageous for those small-scale manufacturerswho do their own slaughtering. On the other hand, major changes in modern meatindustry practice in developed countries must be made if prerigor meat is to be usedagain in meat processing.
Hot meat intended for emulsion-type sausage manufacture should be derived fromcarcasses immediately after slaughter. The forequarters are normally first deboned,trimmed free of fat and sinews, chopped and mixed with salt. Then the same is donewith the hindquarters. The reason for giving processing priority to forequarters is thatthe onset of rigor mortis occurs earlier in forequarters (within 2 to 4 hours) than inhindquarters (within 3 to 5 hours). The use of bull meat, which is normally very lean, isan advantage since its trimming process is relatively short compared, for instance, withcow meat.
FATTY TISSUE
All types of fat can be incorporated in sausage mixtures but in general carcass fatsare preferred. Internal or body fats can also be used.
Immediately after its removal from the body, fatty material, particularly internal fats,must be washed in cold water, classified according to fat-lean ratio and thoroughlychilled. Care should be taken to prevent oxidation and eliminate any kind of impurities,odours, etc.
Total fat of an animal body is composed of three main fat deposits: subcutaneous,intermuscular and kidney knob and channel fat.
Subcutaneous fat represents the peripheral layer of fat to the level of the connectivetissue covering most surface carcass muscles but excluding M. cutaneus trunci whichlies in the subcutaneous fat. Subcutaneous fat, particularly pork fat, is widely used insausage manufacture.
Intermuscular fat includes the fat lying between the muscles, together with thinconnective tissue, small blood vessels and small muscles that are physically difficult toseparate. In the preparation of meat for raw sausages, accumulations of intermuscularfat should be trimmed as best as possible.
Kidney knob and channel fat encompasses the perinephric and retroperitoneal fat.The restricted quantities of this fat can be incorporated in emulsion-type sausages.
The amount of added fat depends on the type of sausage and on the fat content ofmeat used in its manufacture. The role of fat varies according to the type of sausage. Inemulsion-type sausages the fat is part of a complex system, participating in forming theproduct's characteristic structure. In raw sausages, fat contributes to the specific taste,aroma and consistency of this type of product.
Some observations concerning the choice and use of beef fat in sausage products.
Beef fat is a valuable raw sausage ingredient which requires special care. It easily becomessour or rancid if improperly handled or if kept under improper conditions. Beef fatshould preferably be used as fresh as possible, without freezing and storing. If,however, beef fat must be stored, the storage temperature should not exceed 5°C.
Old or rancid fat should never be mixed with fresh fat. Old fat will simplycontaminate and ruin any other fat mixed with it. The unprocessed meat sausage masscontaining such fat very often appears to be entirely fresh but the finished sausage maystill be of a low organoleptic value or quite inedible.
The best fats for making all beef sausages are brisket fat and back fat. The white fat ofnot too young beef animals in preferred for sausage making. Firm white fat isassociated with quality sausages.
VARIETY MEATS
Variety or fancy meats are also used in sausage manufacture. They include tripe,tongues, livers, blood or blood plasma, brains, lungs, udders (nonlactating), spleens,suet and cod and brisket fat, pig stomachs, gelatinous skins, pig backfat and caul fat,ears, snouts, ox lips etc. They are of inferior binding capacity. However, prepared andprocessed thoroughly as when used in sausages, they are palatable and nutritious.
Tongues, after removal from the head, are washed, chilled and trimmed. After thelivers have been removed from the carcass and veterinary inspected, the gall bladderis cut off. Care is exercised not to puncture the bladder because the gall of the bladderwould spoil the liver. The livers are washed with a minimum amount of water. They arekept in a chiller or freezer if not used immediately. Calf and pig livers are particularlyused for the manufacture of liver sausages.
Hearts are cut open, washed and chilled or frozen. Kidneys are skinned, trimmedfree of fat and chilled or frozen. In obtaining tripe, the rumens are cleaned, carefullywashed, hand-scrubbed with brushes and their mucous linings are removed; they arethen trimmed of adhering tissues, cooked, trimmed free of fat and used in sausagemanufacture or kept in a chiller or freezer for future use. Pork stomachs are cut open,emptied and washed; mucous coating is then removed and the stomachs are cooked,chilled and used in sausages.
STORAGE OF MEAT RAW MATERIALS
Meat fat and other meat raw material used in sausage production are stored at atemperature between 0° and 3°C, if unfrozen. Similar temperatures are employed forstoring edible by-products.
Frozen meat must be stored at minus temperatures corresponding to the degree ofmeat freezing required ranging from -8° to -20°C.
It is not absolutely necessary to control storage humidity. It usually ranges from 80 to85 percent. It is highly desirable, however, to keep the walls and ceilings free fromcondensation because any moisture drip upon the product is a source of contamination.
BINDERS, FILLERS AND EXTENDERS
A number of nonmeat ingredients are included in sausage formulations by manymanufacturers, especially in lower or medium-grade sausages and loaves. Theseingredients are commonly known as binders, fillers and extenders. The use of binders,fillers and extenders is not always justified and many people object to sausagescontaining them. Many countries have restrictions on type, amount and quality ofbinders, fillers and extenders used in sausages. Products containing more nonmeatingredients than allowed by meat inspection standards, must be marked as “sausageimitation”. Products where the word “meat” does not appear in the name, or which arelabeled as “imitation”, are not restricted in their content of extenders.
Binders are proteinaceous agents enhancing water binding properties and helpingin binding together different materials in sausage products; sometimes they alsocontribute to fat emulsification.
The most important protein products are: sodium caseinate (90 percent protein), soyprotein isolate (90 percent protein), vital wheat gluten (80 percent protein), soy proteinconcentrate (70 percent protein) etc. Many of these proteins are used by meatprocessors for their functional (binding, emulsifying, extending) attributes rather thanfor their nutritional fortification. Functional properties of these proteins contribute tostructural, emulsifying, binding and gelling qualities in sausages as well as to colourand flavour. Solubility and water absorption influence the functional performance ofthese proteins in sausage systems. Different factors, such as methods of soy proteinproduction, contents of salt, pH, temperature etc., affect solubility and waterabsorption.
Addition of blood plasma proteins (obtained, for example, by centrifugation of beefblood mixed with an equal volume of 0.9 percent NaCl solution, containing 0.5 percentsodium citrate) also improves physical and nutritional properties and yields of somesausage products. Whole blood protein powders also show important emulsifyingproperties but blood powders impart a dark colour to sausages. Plasma and globinproteins, separated from the blood and decolourized, exhibit excellent functionalproperties.
Fillers are carbohydrate products able to adsorb extensive quantities of water butthey are not good emulsifiers. Common fillers, which are used in sausage manufacture,include cereal flours and starches derived from rice, corn, potato, rusk (a cracker mealobtained by baking an unleavened high protein wheat flour), bread etc. Corn syrupand dried corn syrup contribute to the texture of products. These fillers may be addedto sausages to increase their water binding capacity and/or to provide protein whichcan act as an emulsifier. Potatoes can also be processed to provide starch, flour andproteins which can be used in sausage production.
Flours often give the sausages a somewhat tight structure. Potato flour binds moisturein cooked and emulsion-type sausages, but in fresh sausages it causes a springy andresilient effect after drying. Cooked rice tends to give a fairly firm texture while cornflour contributes to good slicing characteristics. Pre-soaked rusk contributes to aneven moisture distribution in the sausage, and yeastless bread may improve both thetexture and flavour of the sausage.
Sausage raw materials characterized by inferior binding properties such as tripe,skin, snouts, pork stomachs, lips etc. are often considered as “filler meats”.
The term “extenders” usually covers nonmeat materials, added in such an amountthat they are able to increase the bulk or modify the quality of a sausage or loafproduct. Meat extenders are primarily plant proteins, usually from soybeans. Theseare first prepared as a flour, a concentrate or an isolate (to a protein level of 90 percentor more). Then, they are further processed to produce the end-product which is oftentextured to resemble meat fibres. Vegetable proteins are used as extenders forground beef, for example hamburgers. To an amount of 75 percent of ground beef, 25percent of a mixture of three parts water and one part vegetable protein, is added.Such a protein extruded meat product has a high water binding capacity.
SALT (SODIUM CHLORIDE)
Salt is the main flavouring agent used in making sausages and it contributes to basictaste characteristics of the final product. The amount of salt added depends on thesausage type and particularly on the fat content but in general it ranges from 1.8 to 2.2percent of the sausage mix. An acceptable level of salt in dry or semidry sausages isabout 3 percent. However, higher and lower salt levels are often used.
Although salt is not generally used in concentrations sufficient to effect preservationit exerts some antimicrobial activity. Some bacteria are already inhibited at 2 percentlevels of salt. Other microorganisms tolerate a much higher concentration of salt.
Fig.17 EFFECT OF NaCl LEVEL ON WATER BINDING CAPACITY (WBC) OF MEAT
Salt also performs other functions in sausage. It dissolves in water and aids in thewater binding and emulsifying capacity of meat proteins. Use of salt alone gives a drysalty product which has an unattractive colour. Today, salt is generally used incombination with sugar and nitrite. Salt should be pure and sufficiently finelygranulated to dissolve easily in the meat.
NITRITE AND NITRATE
Nitrite and nitrate exercise a powerful influence, imparting the desired colour to themeat. Nitrate serves chiefly as a source of nitrite. Reduction of nitrate to nitrite requiresa relatively high population level of nitrate-reducing bacteria which is highlyundesirable, especially in warm climates. Since nitrite has a quicker reaction, it iswidely used in place of nitrate.
In order to fix the colour of meat, the nitrite must change into nitric oxide (Fig. 18)which actually combines with myoglobin to form a pink-red nitrosylmyoglobin orpigment of cured meat. There are several conditions under which nitrite can bereduced to nitric oxide: (a) at pH below 5.5; this convention is accelerated by theaddition of deltagluconolactone which forms gluconic acid thus lowering the sausagepH; (b) by mitochondrial enzymes under anaerobic conditions; but in rapid curing, it isconceivable that the formation of cooked cured meat colour follows mainlynonenzymatic pathways; (c) by adding reductants (ascorbic acid or its sodium salts)which greatly accelerate nitric oxide formation.
Fig.18 ROLE OF NITRITE, ASCORBATE AND HEAT IN CURED MEAT PIGMENT FORMATION
The initial reaction in the nitrosylmyoglobin formation is likely to be the oxidation ofmyoglobin to metmyoglobin by the nitrite itself; the metmyoglobin is then converted innitrosylmetmyoglobin (Fig. 18). The latter is reduced to nitrosylmyoglobin eitherendogenously or by reductants (added ascorbate or sulfhydryl groups releasedduring heating of meat). Finally, the best denaturation of the globin portion ofmyoglobin produces the pink coloured nitrosylmyochrome). Approximately 10 to 30percent of the added nitrite remains intact as residual nitrite, 45 percent is consumedfor curing colour and nitrate formation, while the remainder is involved in otherreactions. Oxygen and light contribute to fading; the presence of rancid fats, hydrogenperoxide of bacterial origin or excessive amounts of nitrite in fermented sausagescause a greening of pink pigment.
In many countries the use of nitrite has been permitted provided that its residualamount in the finished product does not exceed 180 to 200 parts per million. The mostpopular commercial and technological form of nitrite used is the so-called “nitrite andsalt curing mixture”, containing 0.5 to 0.6 percent of added sodium nitrite and 99.4 to99.5 percent of sodium chloride. If this salt-nitrite mixture is added to meat at a level of2 and 3 percent, it will result in 100 and 150 ppm nitrite respectively. These amounts ofnitrite and sodium chloride, combined with low pH and water activity of meat andfollowing the heat and/or smoking process, are the main bacteriostatic factorsdetermining shelf life of the final product.
The appearance of the characteristic pink-red colour in sausages is a good signindicating that the proper sequence of events in conversion of raw materials into aready-to-eat product has occurred. The absence of the pink colour or development ofbrown or grey discoloration always indicate that spoilage is under way or will soonoccur.
The use of nitrite in cured meats has been questioned during the past few years. Theforemost concern was that nitrite might react with secondary and tertiary aminespresent in meats with subsequent formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines. This concernhas resulted in a trend to eliminate nitrates and reduce the amount of nitrite in curedmeats. To date, reduction from 200 ppm residue in final products to 120 ppm ingoingnitrite has occurred in a number of countries. In opposition to nitrate the total ban onthe use of nitrite in meat curing seems to be neither necessary nor justifiable in view ofthe present state of knowledge. The regulatory status of nitrite and nitrate in manycountries is still somewhat tenuous and thus the research for alternative preservativesin cured meat countinues to find supplementary antimicrobials able to assure safetyfrom botulism.
ASCORBATE AND ERYTHORBATE
These reductants react with nitrite to give nitric oxide, thus fastening development ofthe pink-red colour in cured sausages. Only sodium ascorbate and erythorbate(isoascorbate) are used in practice since ascorbic and isoascorbic acids react directlywith the nitrite. Sausage emulsions containing ascorbate or erythorbate may be heattreated immediately after stuffing and a uniform red colour results throughout theproduct. Ascorbate apparently rapidly reduces metmyoglobin to myoglobin and,secondly reacts with nitrite to produce nitric oxide more efficiently. There are anumber of other curing adjuncts which accalerate curing reactions.
SUGAR
Sugar is added to meat as an adjunct to counteract the salty taste, to give flavour andto serve as a substrate for bacterial acid production in dry and semidry sausages.Sugar acting with the amino acids produce browning products which contribute to thecolour and flavour of the product. Dextrose and d-glucose are employed in sausages atlevels of 0.5 to 2.0 percent or even more. Occasionally, saccharose and maltose arealso used in processing. The high sugar level in meat products is unusual for theaverage European or American but quite acceptable or pleasing to many Asians.
Corn syrup and corn syrup solids are often used instead of sugar; they arecomposed of a mixture of dextrose, maltose and dextrins whose relative quantity ratiosare dependent upon the degree of starch saccharification.
PHOSPHATES
Phosphates have wide application in the meat processing industry. They includesodium tripolyphosphate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, sodium hexametaphosphate,sodium acid pyrophosphate, dissodium phosphate etc..
Alkaline phosphate salts (sodium tripolyphosphate and tetrasodium pyrophosphate)elevate the pH of meat, thus improving its water-holding power. The acid reactingphosphates (alkali-metal salts or ortophosphoric acid and pyrophosphoric acid), on thecontrary, lower the pH.
Polyphosphates act as buffers; they sequester cations and raise the ionic strength ofthe solution. Tetrasodium pyrophosphate interacts directly with actomyosindissociating it into myosin and actin. Sodium tripolyphosphate has a similar effect, butis active after a short delay for enzymatic hydrolysis to tetrasodium pyrophosphate,while sodium hexametaphosphate does not interact at all. The actin and myosin,dissociated by tetrasodium pyrophosphate and sodium tripolyphosphate, are thensolubilized by salt and thereby their water binding capacity is enhanced. During heatcoagulation of highly solubilized protein, the water is immobilized in the pores offormed gel structure.
Although both sodium tripolyphosphate and tetrasodium pyrophosphate aresuperior to all other phosphates, sodium tripolyphosphates have a higher solubilityand are less prone to form insoluble precipitates. Sodium acid pyrophosphate inparticular is often utilized in sausages. The permissible maximum concentration ofresidual phosphates in meat products is set at 0.5 percent.
Phosphates retard development of oxidative rancidity in meat products.
COLOURING AGENTS
Colour is a very important attribute of meats and is subject to great changes duringprocessing. Therefore, the addition of artificial dyes or natural pigments is oftenrequired to make meat products attractive to the consumer. However, artificialcolouring of sausages is not usually permitted. Meat, particularly beef, contains enoughnatural red pigment so any addition of artificial colour is not technologically justifiable.
SPICES
It is no longer economically justified for the large-scale sausage manufacturer toblend flavouring raw materials in order to achieve consistent flavour levels in hissausage product. On the other hand, for the small-scale sausage manufacturer it isessential to know how to select, use and store spices and to be acquainted with theirflavour profiles.
Flavour preferences differ considerably not only from region to region and from onecountry to another but also within the same country. These preferences should receiveserious attention by any local small-scale manufacturer not only because of their directimpact on food habits and expectations of his sausage consumers but also because oftheir intrinsic value to the identity of his products and because of their possibleinterference with modern sausage industry experience.
Any change the sausage manufacturer makes in his methods of processing cannecessitate adequate modification in his spice formulations. Any new method ofsmoking or cooking may require spice formulation adjustments. A switch of fresh meatto frozen or of lean trimmings to those containing more fat or of local meat to importedmay also render necessary a change in spice formulation. New trends in foodmarketing, new tastes in changing patterns of food habits and life style are also givingrise to new demands for flavouring changes.
Spices embrace an assemblage of true spices, herbs and vegetable bulbs. The term“true spices” usually refers to genuine natural spices that include dried rhizomes,barks, flowers or their parts and fruits or seeds of different plants, principally grown intropical and subtropical regions, containing aromatic and pungent substances andused for seasoning meat products (Table 1).
| Part of plant | English (Latin) name |
|---|---|
| Rhizome | ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.); curcuma (Curcuma longa); |
| Bark | cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Bl.); sweet orange and lemon (Citrus medicus); |
| Flower | capers (Caparis spinosa); cloves (Eugenia caryophylata Thumbe); lavender(Lavandula officinalis Chaix): mace (Myristica fragrans Houtt); saffron (Crocussativus); tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus); |
| Fruit seed | anise (Pimpinella adisum); allspice (Pimenta officinalis Lindl.); caraway (Carumcarvi); cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum); chili (Capsicum frutescens); coriander(Coriandrum sativum); cumin (Cuminum cyminum); dill (Anethum graveolens);fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Lindl); fenugreek (Trigonella fenumgraecum); juniper(Juniperus communis); mustard (Sinapis alba and Brassica nigra): pimento seeallspice). |
Herbs are dried leaves of mostly temperate climate plants that have a distinctiveflavour and aroma and which are used as spices to season meats and meat products(Table 2). Onion (Allium sativum) and garlic (Allium cepa), originate from vegetablebulbs and are widely used in meat product manufacture.
| English | Latin | |
|---|---|---|
| Basil | Ocimum basilicum | |
| Celery | Apium graveolens | |
| Lovage | Levisticum officinale, Koch | |
| Marjoram | Origanum spp. | |
| Mint | Menta piperita | |
| Mugwort | Artemisia vulgaris | |
| Oregano | Lippia spp. | |
| Parsley | Petroselium crispum | |
| Rosemary | Rosmarinus officinalis | |
| Sage | Salvia officinalis | |
| Savoury | Satureja hortensis | |
| Sweet bay | Laurus nobilis | |
| Thyme | Thymus vulgaris |
Spices are variable in quality due to a complexity of varying factors (origin, climaticconditions, methods of collection, storage conditions etc.), influencing the flavouringpicture. The large-scale sausages manufacturer can correct the flavour, colour andother quality characteristics of his spices through either control in his own laboratoryor specifying his requirements to the spice processing company. The small-scalesausage manufacturer, in turn, cannot specify his requirements to his local spiceproducers, thus he is obliged himself to find the solution to his problems.
Spices are used either in natural form or as an extractive. Natural spices can beutilized whole but usually they are previously ground. Extractives include essential oilsand oleoresins. Although spices are most commonly used in their natural form,extractives are becoming increasingly popular.
Natural spices.
Natural spices consist of intact plant parts, dried, cleaned and graded,and spices reduced to various degrees of comminution of breaking, granting,grinding, chopping or milling.
The main spice components are flavour-bearing essential oils which are deposited inspecial tightly protective cell structures. This is the reason why natural spices arecharacterized by an exceptionally long shelf life, and why the strength of a spice cannotbe expressed by weight but rather in the percentage of essential oils it contains.Particle reduction of natural spices favours the process of flavour release. Standardground spices produced today by major spice processors vary usually in granulationfrom 0.3 to 1 mm, but microground spices have a particle size of about 50 micrometer(0.05 mm). Finely pulverized spices liberate their essential oils more readily than intactspices. In small-scale sausage manufacture it is advisable to grind spice fresh whenneeded. Ground pepper loses potency more rapidly than most spices and it isrecommended to take extra care that it is fresh.
Natural spices are particularly used for semidry and dry sausages.
Essential oils.
Essential oils are volatile spice components extracted by steamdistillation. They are basically mixtures of terpenes, sesquiterpenes and otherhydrocarbons, various alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, phenols, and a small amount ofdifferent residues. The terpenes and sesquiterpenes are easily oxidized and,therefore, terpenless oils are increasingly popular. Essential oils are too concentratedfor direct addition to a sausage emulsion.
Oleoresins.
Oleoresins are viscous resinous materials produced by solvent extractionof ground spices; they consist of both volatile and non-volatile compounds. Oleoresinsalso undergo further processing to improve their solubility and adapt their strength forimmediate use in sausage manufacture. Oleoresins are strong but they often lack thesubtlety of flavour derived from natural spices.
Soluble spices or liquid forms of extractives.
Essential oils or oleoresins can be bothwater-dispersible and oil-soluble.
Dry spices or dry forms of extractives.
Essential oils and oleoresins are also availablein spray-dried (encapsulated) and dry soluble forms which are often recommended insausage making.
If the essential oils or oleoresins are evenly distributed in an edible gum solution anddried, particles of extractives are encapsulated by a layer of fine gum and a new formof seasoning is obtained.
In the preparation of dry soluble spices, the extractives are dispersed into a salt-ordextrose-medium. The dextrose or salt is easily dissolved in water and this fact helpsin the uniform distribution of extractives in the sausage mix.
Soluble spices are frequently used with cooked sausages because they are low intannin, flavones and anthocyanin which may darken when heated. Therefore, thecolour of sausages is somewhat brighter when soluble rather than natural spices areadded.
Spice blends.
Spice blends can be either a mixture of natural spices, of natural spicesand extractives (preparations) or combinations of extractives themselves. Each of themmay be produced with or without the addition of some carriers or stabilizers such assugar, dextrose, salt, starch, some proteins etc. They are marketed in batch-packagedunits suitable for direct use in sausage production.
The proper formulation of individual spices for different kinds of sausages is ofutmost importance. Although, it is absolutely necessary to avoid any superiority instrength of an individual spice except for specific cases, most sausage spiceformulations are composed of basic and supplementary spices. A good sausage spicemixture should normally have the individual spices so well balanced in strength that auniform reproducible product is obtained, giving the sausage a well-balancedrounded full flavour. Spices of equal quality and strength should always be used and,after any change in their quality, the spice mixture must be reformulated.
The most important natural spice in sausage making is pepper. It blends well withsalt and sage and a series of other spices. There is no great difference in flavourbetween black and white pepper but black pepper is more noticeable in the sausagesappearance. Salt and pepper form a flavour basis for many traditional sausages.
There are also other traditional spices for many sausages. Apart from pepper, thymeand mustard as well as savoury are also popular in numerous sausages; the addition ofthyme is often practised in sausages containing a distinctive amount of added cereals.Anise is used in spice formulations for many raw sausages and mortadellas, andcinnamon in spice blends for bologna and many cooked sausages; bay leaves andginger are important spice components for pork sausages. Garlic is combined withother spices for smoked sausages, while marjoram is often found in spice formulationsfor different sausages as a supplementary flavouring agent. Onion is generally utilizedin cooked sausage production. Nutmeg and mace are chiefly supplementary spices inblends for some cooked emulsion-type and even raw sausages. The same is almosttrue for cardamom and rosemary. Tarragon and cumin combine well with basiccomponents in poultry sausage spice formulations. Lavender and rosemary are ofteneither basic or supplementary spices for sausages made from mutton or with a high fatcontent. The total amount of spices added in a sausage mixture varies widely from 0.7to 2 or more percent.
A fairly recent substance used in seasoning foods is monosodium glutamate. Itfortifies and intensifies other flavours, but first of all it enhances the flavouringcomponents of the meat itself. Sugars blend well in many spice mixtures and are oftenused in flavouring combinations.
Today there is an increasing trend in sausage spice formulations to combine severalbasic and a number of supplementary spices in such proportions to eliminate thepreponderance of any single flavour, thus creating an overal harmonious flavour.Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 list the most important spices and their usual optimum
| Spices in formulation (in grammes per 1 kg) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Basic | Supplementary | ||
| A | dextrose (2–3) | A | allspice (0.3–3.0) |
| sugar (2–4) | Jamaica rum | ||
| pepper (1–2.5) | cardamom (0.3–0.5) | ||
| red pepper (0.3–0.5) | sage (0.3) | ||
| mace (0.4–1.0) | |||
| dry starch syrup (2–5) | |||
| B | mustard (1.0–2.0) | B | rosemary (0.3) |
| caraway (0.2–0.5) | cloves (0.3–0.5) | ||
| garlic salt (0.5) | marjoram (0.2–0.3) | ||
| coriander (0.3–0.5) | |||
| anise (1.0–2.0) | C | glutamate (0.1) | |
| lavender | |||
| ginger (0.1–0.3) | |||
| fenugreek (0.5–1.0) | |||
A - very frequent use;
B - frequent use;
C - occasional use
| Spices in formulation (in grammes per 1 kg) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Basic | Supplementary | ||
| A | white pepper (2.1–2.5) | A | cardamom (0.3–0.5) |
| black pepper (2.0–2.5) | allspice (0.2–1.0) | ||
| glutamate (0.1) | cumin | ||
| nutmeg, mace (0.2–0.4) | |||
| meat broth (0.5–6.0) | B | coriander (0.2–0.3) | |
| juniper (0.2) | |||
| marjoram (0.2–1.0) | |||
| B | garlic (0.2–0.4) | onion (2.5) | |
| red pepper (0.5) | ginger (0.3–0.5) | ||
| chili (0.01) | |||
| caraway (0.2–0.5) | C | celery salt (2.0) | |
| lemon bark (0.1–0.3) | sugar | ||
| dry starch syrup (2.0) | parsley (0.02) | ||
| cloves (0.3–0.5) | |||
A - Very frequent use;
B - frequent use;
C - occasional use
| Spices in formulation (in grammes per 1 kg) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Basic | Supplementary | ||
| A | black pepper (1.0–2.5) | A | ginger (0.2–0.3) |
| nutmeg, mace (0.3–1.0) | red pepper (0.3–1.0) | ||
| garlic (0.1) | allspice (0.2–0.3) | ||
| rosemary (0.1–0.3) | |||
| B | pistachio (10.0) | marjoram (0.5) | |
| sage (0.2–0.5) | oregano (0.3–0.5) | ||
| glutamate (0.1–0.2) | |||
| B | caraway (0.25–1.0) | ||
| chili (0.02) | |||
| cardamom (0.2) | |||
| mustard (1.5) | |||
| onion (6.0) | |||
| C | lemon bark (0.1) | ||
| cinnamon (0.2) | |||
| parsley (0.2) | |||
| cumin (0.2–0.3) | |||
A - very frequent use;
B - frequent use;
C - occasional use
| Spices in formulation (in grammes per 1 kg) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Basic | Supplementary | ||
| A | onion (10.0) | A | ginger (0.3–0.5) |
| marjoram (0.5–2.0) | thyme (0.1–0.2) | ||
| white pepper (2.0–4.0) | rosemary (0.1–0.3) | ||
| meat broth (2.0) | savoury (0.2) | ||
| sugar (2.0–4.0) | basil (0.2–0.3) | ||
| cloves (0.2–0.4) | |||
| black pepper (2.0) | B | vanilla (according to taste) | |
| nutmeg (0.3–1.0) | |||
| B | allspice (0.5) | cinnamon (0.05–0.2) | |
| cardamom (0.2–0.5) | anise (0.2) | ||
| tomato concentrate (20.0) | dill | ||
| glutamate (0.1) | |||
| nutmeg (0.3–1.0) | C | lemon bark (0.1) | |
| chili (0.01) | mace (0.5–1.0) | ||
| curry (0.3) | |||
| celery salt (0.3–2.0) | |||
| coriander (0.3–1.0) | |||
| caraway (0.3–0.6) | |||
| red pepper (0.5–1.0) | |||
| parsley (0.1–0.3) | |||
| sweet bay | |||
| lavender | |||
| mugwort | |||
| fennel | |||
A - very frequent use;
B - frequent use;
C - occasional use
Sterilized spices.
Natural spices are sometimes contaminated with an importantnumber of microorganisms. However, the sterilization of spices is difficult. On the otherhand, as the total spice added to various type of sausages does not usually exceed1 percent, the spice contribution in the sausage total bacterial count is, as a rule, ofminor importance. Spices sterilization by ethylene oxide gas fumigation, which hasfrequently been used, is not without risk from the health point of view. Nevertheless,careful attention in selecting and preparing natural spices is normally sufficientto obtain a reasonable shelf life of the final product. Extractives are microbiologicallyadvantageous because they are free of microbial contamination.
Other spice properties.
Certain spices act as antioxidants retarding the rate ofoxidative changes in sausages (viz. onion, rosemary, sage, thyme, ginger, blackpepper, garlic, cloves etc). Some spices contribute to microbial contamination ofsausages and others have a limited preservative effect. Cinnamon, onion, garlic and anumber of other spices are able to inhibit proliferation of distinctive microorganisms.Spices in raw sausage fermentation have an active influence in the control of bacterialdevelopment.
Storage.
Spices (whole or ground, natural or extractives) can be stored without toomuch loss of flavour if tightly sealed and kept in a cool, dark and dry place.
